31 January 1788
The nature and extent of the judicial power of the United States, proposed
to be granted by this constitution, claims our particular attention.
Much has been said and written upon the subject of this new system on both
sides, but I have not met with any writer, who has discussed the judicial
powers with any degree of accuracy. And yet it is obvious, that we can form
but very imperfect ideas of the manner in which this government will work,
or the effect it will have in changing the internal police and mode of
distributing justice at present subsisting in the respective states, without
a thorough investigation of the powers of the judiciary and of the manner in
which they will operate. This government is a complete system, not only for
making, but for executing laws. And the courts of law, which will be
constituted by it, are not only to decide upon the constitution and the laws
made in pursuance of it, but by officers subordinate to them to execute all
their decisions. The real effect of this system of government, will
therefore be brought home to the feelings of the people, through the medium
of the judicial power. It is, moreover, of great importance, to examine with
care the nature and extent of the judicial power, because those who are to
be vested with it, are to be placed in a situation altogether unprecedented
in a free country. They are to be rendered totally independent, both of the
people and the legislature, both with respect to their offices and salaries.
No errors they may commit can be corrected by any power above them, if any
such power there be, nor can they be removed from office for making ever so
many erroneous adjudications.
The only causes for which they can be displaced, is, conviction of treason,
bribery, and high crimes and misdemeanors.
This part of the plan is so modelled, as to authorise the courts, not only
to carry into execution the powers expressly given, but where these are
wanting or ambiguously expressed, to supply what is wanting by their own
decisions.
That we may be enabled to form a just opinion on this subject, I shall, in
considering it,
1st. Examine the nature and extent of the judicial powers -- and
2d. Enquire, whether the courts who are to exercise them, are so constituted
as to afford reasonable ground of confidence, that they will exercise them
for the general good.
With a regard to the nature and extent of the judicial powers, I have to
regret my want of capacity to give that full and minute explanation of them
that the subject merits. To be able to do this, a man should be possessed of
a degree of law knowledge far beyond what I pretend to. A number of hard
words and technical phrases are used in this part of the system, about the
meaning of which gentlemen learned in the law differ.
Its advocates know how to avail themselves of these phrases. In a number of
instances, where objections are made to the powers given to the judicial,
they give such an explanation to the technical terms as to avoid them.
Though I am not competent to give a perfect explanation of the powers
granted to this department of the government, I shall yet attempt to trace
some of the leading features of it, from which I presume it will appear,
that they will operate to a total subversion of the state judiciaries, if
not, to the legislative authority of the states.
In article 3d, sect. 2d, it is said, "The judicial power shall extend to
all cases in law and equity arising under this constitution, the laws of the
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their
authority, &c."
The first article to which this power extends, is, all cases in law and
equity arising under this constitution.
What latitude of construction this clause should receive, it is not easy to
say. At first view, one would suppose, that it meant no more than this, that
the courts under the general government should exercise, not only the powers
of courts of law, but also that of courts of equity, in the manner in which
those powers are usually exercised in the different states. But this cannot
be the meaning, because the next clause authorises the courts to take
cognizance of all cases in law and equity arising under the laws of the
United States; this last article, I conceive, conveys as much power to the
general judicial as any of the state courts possess.
The cases arising under the constitution must be different from those
arising under the laws, or else the two clauses mean exactly the same thing.
The cases arising under the constitution must include such, as bring into
question its meaning, and will require an explanation of the nature and
extent of the powers of the different departments under it.
This article, therefore, vests the judicial with a power to resolve all
questions that may arise on any case on the construction of the
constitution, either in law or in equity.
1st. They are authorised to determine all questions that may arise upon the
meaning of the constitution in law. This article vests the courts with
authority to give the constitution a legal construction, or to explain it
according to the rules laid down for construing a law. -- These rules give a
certain degree of latitude of explanation. According to this mode of
construction, the courts are to give such meaning to the constitution as
comports best with the common, and generally received acceptation of the
words in which it is expressed, regarding their ordinary and popular use,
rather than their grammatical propriety. Where words are dubious, they will
be explained by the context. The end of the clause will be attended to, and
the words will be understood, as having a view to it; and the words will not
be so understood as to bear no meaning or a very absurd one.
2d. The judicial are not only to decide questions arising upon the meaning
of the constitution in law, but also in equity.
By this they are empowered, to explain the constitution according to the
reasoning spirit of it, without being confined to the words or letter.
"From this method of interpreting laws (says Blackstone) by the reason of
them, arises what we call equity;" which is thus defined by Grotius, "the
correction of that, wherein the law, by reason of its universality, is
deficient["]; for since in laws all cases cannot be foreseen, or expressed,
it is necessary, that when the decrees of the law cannot be applied to
particular cases, there should some where be a power vested of defining
those circumstances, which had they been foreseen the legislator would have
expressed; and these are the cases, which according to Grotius, ["]lex non
exacte definit, sed arbitrio boni viri permittet."
The same learned author observes, "That equity, thus depending essentially
upon each individual case, there can be no established rules and fixed
principles of equity laid down, without destroying its very essence, and
reducing it to a positive law."
From these remarks, the authority and business of the courts of law, under
this clause, may be understood.
They will give the sense of every article of the constitution, that may from
time to time come before them. And in their decisions they will not confine
themselves to any fixed or established rules, but will determine, according
to what appears to them, the reason and spirit of the constitution. The
opinions of the supreme court, whatever they may be, will have the force of
law; because there is no power provided in the constitution, that can
correct their errors, or controul their adjudications. From this court there
is no appeal. And I conceive the legislature themselves, cannot set aside a
judgment of this court, because they are authorised by the constitution to
decide in the last resort. The legislature must be controuled by the
constitution, and not the constitution by them. They have therefore no more
right to set aside any judgment pronounced upon the construction of the
constitution, than they have to take from the president, the chief command
of the army and navy, and commit it to some other person. The reason is
plain; the judicial and executive derive their authority from the same
source, that the legislature do theirs; and therefore in all cases, where
the constitution does not make the one responsible to, or controulable by
the other, they are altogether independent of each other.
The judicial power will operate to effect, in the most certain, but yet
silent and imperceptible manner, what is evidently the tendency of the
constitution: -- I mean, an entire subversion of the legislative, executive
and judicial powers of the individual states. Every adjudication of the
supreme court, on any question that may arise upon the nature and extent of
the general government, will affect the limits of the state jurisdiction. In
proportion as the former enlarge the exercise of their powers, will that of
the latter be restricted.
That the judicial power of the United States, will lean strongly in favour
of the general government, and will give such an explanation to the
constitution, as will favour an extension of its jurisdiction, is very
evident from a variety of considerations.
1st. The constitution itself strongly countenances such a mode of
construction. Most of the articles in this system, which convey powers of
any considerable importance, are conceived in general and indefinite terms,
which are either equivocal, ambiguous, or which require long definitions to
unfold the extent of their meaning. The two most important powers committed
to any government, those of raising money, and of raising and keeping up
troops, have already been considered, and shewn to be unlimitted by any
thing but the discretion of the legislature. The clause which vests the
power to pass all laws which are proper and necessary, to carry the powers
given into execution, it has been shewn, leaves the legislature at liberty,
to do every thing, which in their judgment is best. It is said, I know, that
this clause confers no power on the legislature, which they would not have
had without it -- though I believe this is not the fact, yet, admitting it
to be, it implies that the constitution is not to receive an explanation
strictly, according to its letter; but more power is implied than is
expressed. And this clause, if it is to be considered, as explanatory of the
extent of the powers given, rather than giving a new power, is to be
understood as declaring, that in construing any of the articles conveying
power, the spirit, intent and design of the clause, should be attended to,
as well as the words in their common acceptation.
This constitution gives sufficient colour for adopting an equitable
construction, if we consider the great end and design it professedly has in
view -- these appear from its preamble to be, "to form a more perfect union,
establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common
defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to
ourselves and posterity." The design of this system is here expressed, and
it is proper to give such a meaning to the various parts, as will best
promote the accomplishment of the end; this idea suggests itself naturally
upon reading the preamble, and will countenance the court in giving the
several articles such a sense, as will the most effectually promote the ends
the constitution had in view -- how this manner of explaining the
constitution will operate in practice, shall be the subject of future
enquiry.
2d. Not only will the constitution justify the courts in inclining to this
mode of explaining it, but they will be interested in using this latitude
of interpretation. Every body of men invested with office are tenacious of
power; they feel interested, and hence it has become a kind of maxim, to
hand down their offices, with all its rights and privileges, unimpared to
their successors; the same principle will influence them to extend their
power, and increase their rights; this of itself will operate strongly upon
the courts to give such a meaning to the constitution in all cases where it
can possibly be done, as will enlarge the sphere of their own authority.
Every extension of the power of the general legislature, as well as of the
judicial powers, will increase the powers of the courts; and the dignity and
importance of the judges, will be in proportion to the extent and magnitude
of the powers they exercise. I add, it is highly probable the emolument of
the judges will be increased, with the increase of the business they will
have to transact and its importance. From these considerations the judges
will be interested to extend the powers of the courts, and to construe the
constitution as much as possible, in such a way as to favour it; and that
they will do it, appears probable.
3d. Because they will have precedent to plead, to justify them in it. It is
well known, that the courts in England, have by their own authority,
extended their jurisdiction far beyond the limits set them in their
original institution, and by the laws of the land.
The court of exchequer is a remarkable instance of this. It was originally
intended principally to recover the king's debts, and to order the revenues
of the crown. It had a common law jurisdiction, which was established merely
for the benefit of the king's accomptants. We learn from Blackstone, that
the proceedings in this court are grounded on a writ called quo minus, in
which the plaintiff suggests, that he is the king's farmer or debtor, and
that the defendant hath done him the damage complained of, by which he is
less able to pay the king. These suits, by the statute of Rutland, are
expressly directed to be confined to such matters as specially concern the
king, or his ministers in the exchequer. And by the articuli super cartas,
it is enacted, that no common pleas be thenceforth held in the exchequer
contrary to the form of the great charter: but now any person may sue in the
exchequer. The surmise of being debtor to the king being matter of form, and
mere words of course; and the court is open to all the nation.
When the courts will have a precedent before them of a court which extended
its jurisdiction in opposition to an act of the legislature, is it not to be
expected that they will extend theirs, especially when there is nothing in
the constitution expressly against it? and they are authorised to construe
its meaning, and are not under any controul?
This power in the judicial, will enable them to mould the government, into
almost any shape they please. -- The manner in which this may be effected we
will hereafter examine.
Brutus.